Professor Paul McMenamin has drawn on his extensive experience as a tertiary educator and eye researcher for over 45 years to develop a high-quality eye chart that presents:

• The detailed cell and tissue structure of various components of the eye, and

• Focussed summaries of the most common vision threatening conditions affecting each part of the eye and how they relate to the anatomy.

This detailed clinico-pathological content is primarily targeted at medical students, trainee ophthalmologists, optometrists, and other eye care specialists. It is also ideal for patient education and explaining eye diseases in clinics.

The poster is available in an A1 format (59.4 x 84.1cm) to fit a standard A1 frame (not included). It is printed in full colour, on high quality acid free paper, and fully laminated.

AU$49 inc. GST with free shipping to Australia and New Zealand.

Order online at www.anatomyoftheeye.com

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the leading causes of blindness and visual impairment in Australia and the Western world. The Australian National Eye Health Survey conducted in 2016 found that 0.96% of non-indigenous Australians over 50 years of age have late-stage AMD, and 10.5% have intermediate-stage AMD. More recently, the Australian Eye and Ear Health Survey (AEEHS), released in July 2025, found that AMD was the leading cause of bilateral blindness in Australia, and one of the leading causes of both unilateral and bilateral visual impairment. with age, and this is of particular concern given the ageing population in Australia. It is currently estimated that 1.9 million Australians have some form of AMD, and this is set to increase to 2.1 million by 2030. On a global scale, the prevalence of AMD is estimated to increase to 288 million by 2040.

AMD is an acquired condition in which the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and overlying photoreceptors progressively degenerate due to a complex interplay of age, genetics, and exposure to both endogenous and environmental oxidative stress. Family history is known to be a risk factor for AMD – there are 52 common AMD-associated gene variants that can influence the immune system (complement pathway) and inflammatory responses thought to be associated with AMD, such as the CFH and ARMS2/HTRA1 gene variants. Exogenous oxidative stress, such as smoking, can contribute further to RPE insult and decompensation, and a sedentary lifestyle without sufficient physical activity likely increases overall inflammation within the body. Natural progression of AMD to late disease results in death of the overlying RPE and photoreceptors, characterised by centre-involving geographic atrophy (GA), or development of abnormal angiogenic vessels (neovascular AMD). The likelihood of progression from early-to-intermediate AMD to late AMD has been described in the literature from 15–20% to as high as 47%.

At the time of writing, several intravitreal anti-VEGF agents are funded by the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) in Australia for treatment of neovascular AMD, including aflibercept, ranibizumab, faricimab, and brolucizumab (for refractory cases). On the other hand, there are limited treatment options for GA – two intravitreal complement

1. Be aware of the prevalence of age- related macular degeneration in Australia and current treatments available,

2. Be aware of the role antioxidant supplements play in slowing progression of AMD and GA,

multi-centre, double-masked, and placebo- controlled clinical trial of 4,757 patients over a mean follow-up period of 6.3 years. The formula consisted of antioxidants (500 mg vitamin C, 400 IU vitamin E, and 15 mg beta-carotene), 80 mg zinc (as zinc oxide) and 2 mg copper (as cupric oxide). Both vitamin C and vitamin E play an important role in minimising oxidative damage in the eye. Beta-carotene is a carotenoid agent not normally found in the eye, however it does share a similar molecular structure to xanthophyll agents (lutein and zeaxanthin) within the macula and was therefore thought to have fairly similar properties. at the time of the AREDS study, only beta- carotene was readily available.

Zinc is an essential trace element that is involved in numerous physiological processes within the body, including modulation of metabolic and oxidative reactions. It is found in high concentrations in the photoreceptors and RPE. The inclusion of copper was primarily to prevent neutropenia and anaemia caused by copper deficiency, which is a potential adverse effect of high- dose zinc. The severity of AMD was categorised according to Table 1 and this was used by the AREDS group to standardise grading of AMD in practice, and to more accurately assess disease progression.

The results of the AREDS study were very promising – in patients who had AREDS category 3 (intermediate) AMD, or where one